Abstract
This study examines the relationship between digital exclusion and access to essential services across six West African countries, using Afrobarometer Round 9 data (2021-2023). We construct a multidimensional digital-exclusion index based on digital-technology access and usage, then rigorously distinguish individual-level effects from district-level contextual effects on service outcomes. Three findings emerge. Educational attainment is the most powerful predictor of digital inclusion, substantially outweighing wealth effects. Territorial context dominates individual characteristics: Living in a digitally excluded district imposes far greater service-access penalties than being personally excluded within one’s district. Ethnic fractionalisation significantly amplifies district level digital exclusion. These findings call for prioritising place-based infrastructure investment alongside universal secondary education as the foundation for effective digital-inclusion strategies. Digitalisation of government services risks deepening existing inequalities unless accompanied by coordinated territorial investment.
